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In 1944, Enrico Fermi calculated this would occur at about 50,000,000 K. If that energy can be captured back into the plasma, it can heat other particles to that energy as well, making the reaction self-sustaining. Those reactions release huge amounts of energy. This leads to an interesting possibility even at temperatures well below 100,000 eV, some particles will randomly have enough energy to undergo fusion. In such a mixture, a small number of particles will have much higher energy than the bulk. In any gas the particles have a wide range of energies, normally following the MaxwellвЂ“Boltzmann statistics. Materials heated beyond a few tens of thousands of kelvins dissociate into their electrons and nuclei, producing a gas-like state of matter known as plasma. This energy corresponds to the average energy of particles in a gas heated to thousands of millions of kelvins. This allowed them to measure the nuclear cross section of various fusion reactions, and determined that the deuterium-deuterium reaction occurred at a lower energy than other reactions, peaking at about 100,000 electronvolts (100В keV). In 1934, Mark Oliphant, Paul Harteck and Ernest Rutherford were the first to achieve fusion on Earth, using a particle accelerator to shoot deuterium nuclei into a metal foil containing deuterium, lithium or other elements. Using this theory, in 1929 Fritz Houtermans and Robert Atkinson demonstrated that expected reaction rates in the core of the sun supported Arthur Eddington's 1920 suggestion that the sun is powered by fusion. George Gamow's 1928 exploration of quantum tunnelling demonstrated that nuclear reactions could take place at lower energies than classical theory predicted. The basic understanding of nuclear fusion was developed during the 1920s as physicists explored the new science of quantum mechanics.

14 Harwell in turmoil, ZETA soldiers on.

13 Further scepticism, retraction of claims.

8 Soviet visit and the push to declassify.

More generally, studies of the instabilities in ZETA have led to several important theoretical advances that form the basis of modern plasma theory.

This has led to the modern reversed field pinch concept. In another, while examining ZETA test runs it was noticed that the plasma self-stabilised after the power was turned off. In one line of development, the use of lasers to more accurately measure the temperature was tested on ZETA, and was later used to confirm the results of the Soviet tokamak approach. In spite of ZETA's failure to achieve fusion, the device went on to have a long experimental lifetime and produced numerous important advances in the field. These instabilities appeared inherent to any similar design, and work on the basic pinch concept as a road to fusion power ended by 1961. The neutrons were later explained as being the product of instabilities in the fuel. The claim that ZETA had produced fusion had to be publicly withdrawn, an embarrassing event that cast a chill over the entire fusion establishment. Further experiments on ZETA showed that the original temperature measurements were misleading the bulk temperature was too low for fusion reactions to create the number of neutrons being seen. This led Lyman Spitzer to express his scepticism of the results, but his comments were dismissed by UK observers as jingoism. US and Soviet experiments had also given off similar neutron bursts at temperatures that were not high enough for fusion.

Front-page articles in newspapers around the world announced it as a breakthrough towards unlimited energy, a scientific advance for Britain greater than the recently launched Sputnik had been for the Soviet Union.

Early results were leaked to the press in September 1957, and the following January an extensive review was released. Measurements suggested the fuel was reaching between 1 and 5 million kelvins, a temperature that would produce nuclear fusion reactions, explaining the quantities of neutrons being seen. ZETA went into operation in August 1957 and by the end of the month it was giving off bursts of about a million neutrons per pulse. Its goal was to produce large numbers of fusion reactions, although it was not large enough to produce net energy. Based on the pinch plasma confinement technique, and built at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in the United Kingdom, ZETA was larger and more powerful than any fusion machine in the world at that time. ZETA, short for 'Zero Energy Thermonuclear Assembly', was a major experiment in the early history of fusion power research. The larger device on the right encircling the tube is the magnet used to induce the pinch current. The toroidal confinement tube is roughly centred. The ZETA device at Harwell, United Kingdom.

Building an empire brian carruthers wholesale